European great tits (Parus major) which need caterpillars to feed their young, time their egg-laying schedules to coincide with maximum availability of this creepy-crawly food. However, earlier spring onset due to global warming, is causing caterpillars to mature earlier than the birds’ eggs hatching, leaving parent birds with scarce food resources for chicks.

Are these birds able to cope with this change? The answer to this is as yet undecided, since the battle between climate change and the birds’ adaptation is ongoing. A study on a Dutch population of these birds has found that a genetic subpopulation can vary the timing of their egg-laying. This population can lay eggs earlier, and so, feed their chicks with the early-emerging caterpillars. This has led to an intense selection for birds capable of varying their egg-laying timings, and the Dutch great tit population has shown distinct genetic changes over a span of just 32 years.

This case of the European great tit highlights two important processes – one, global warming can create immense selection pressure on living organisms; and two, certain populations can evolve rapidly to adapt to this pressure.

As evidenced by the example above, climate change is a key driver of evolution, and understanding this is of immense importance — yet most schools and colleges provide no linking study matter between these two processes. “Climate change and evolution are treated as separate topics in the biology pacing guides, scope and sequence, and Florida science standards”, says Julie Bokor, from the outreach centre at the University of Florida. “Often, climate change is dealt with in environmental science classes, while evolution is in biology courses,” she adds.

How then, can students in a classroom be taught about climate change, its effects on genetic variation, and consequent changes in populations and species survival?

Enter the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), which can be used in classrooms to explore interactions between climate change and rapid evolution, thanks to a three-lesson module designed by a group of teachers and a scientist. The module (which includes Bokor as an author) includes an experiment on chilled comatose fruit flies, and is aimed at linking climate change to lessons on evolution; a detailed version of the module is freely available to instructors as a teaching resource.

At temperatures between 4–7°C, fruit flies go into an inactive state known as a “chill coma”. For fruit flies, the chill coma recovery time (CCRT) is a known heritable trait that is dependent on several genes. Fruit flies from temperate regions are known to have shorter CCRTs than those from tropical regions. As flies in a chill coma cannot find food, mates, or avoid predators, CCRT is likely to be adaptive in seasonal temperate climates, where a sudden cool period may be followed by rapid warming.

First Lesson

A basic understanding of adaptation is required for students to be able to interpret data on how quickly comatose flies recover. Thus, the first lesson in the module introduces a fundamental question—are all species affected equally by climate change? To stimulate their minds, students are assigned two articles as homework. One, that future climate change not only includes global warming, but also leads to extreme weather events such as heat waves and cold snaps; and two, an article that introduces the concept of phenotypic plasticity, where a single genotype can produce multiple phenotypes depending on the environment.

Following a discussion of these concepts, students must work in small groups to analyse eight climate-affected species to predict which species would be more populous (“winners”) or less populous (“losers”) in response to expected changes in climate. This analysis activity uses ‘species cards’ based on real data from a study that analysed species vulnerability to climate change, and aids in correcting two common misconceptions about evolution and climate change—(a) that evolution only occurs over very long periods of time, and (b) that climate change negatively impacts all species.

Second Lesson

The second lesson aims to help students explore the role of natural selection on the long-term survival of a species using an active laboratory setup. Students use a modified form of a widely used protocol to address the question — is there potential for natural selection to act on the fruit fly?

To assess the impact of temperature on the rapid evolution of fruit flies, small groups of students observe six vials containing ten flies each; the flies in each vial are from genetically distinct lines. Flies are chilled on ice for three hours to induce a chill coma, and the time taken for flies to recover (CCRT, defined as the fly’s ability to walk) is noted by the students. Based on the pooled data collected, students must create and compare graphs of mean CCRTs for the six fruit fly lines.

In an instructor-mediated class discussion, students must identify CCRT as a genetic trait on which natural selection can occur. Following self-study sessions about classic mechanisms of evolution (mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating, and natural selection), a post-lab question set is used to help students connect the lab-activity with the study material.

Third Lesson

Lesson three aims to help students synthesise their knowledge of climate change and evolution to tackle the question, “What patterns of natural selection might occur as a result of climate change?”. In this one-day lesson, students learn about different types of selection (directional, disruptive, and stabilising), following which, they must complete an assessment in the form of a “natural selection in the face of climate change” activity. Based on a fact sheet with a species description and a problem that the it faces due to climate change, students will again work in small groups to identify how a population might respond to climate change.

This lesson must conclude with a discussion on the limits of evolution—namely,

1. Species do not evolve by choice;

2. Evolution is limited by existing genetic variation; and

3. The pace of evolution may sometimes not be able to keep up with environmental changes due to climate change.

The teaching module, which was implemented on high school students, has been reported by the authors to engage students at a higher level than previously used methods. “This curriculum unit provides opportunities for students to make their own connections between real world occurrences,” says Jessica Mahoney, an author in the publication, and a classroom teacher.

“Although this is an interesting setup, procuring six strains of Drosophila would be difficult for most Indian undergraduate classes”, points out Helen Roselene, Head, Department of Environmental Sciences, Mount Carmel college, Bengaluru. However, if experiments with live fruit flies are not possible in a class setting, the authors have provided a data set on CCRTs for use by teachers who can conduct the lesson as a purely analytical exercise.

In all, the module encourages cross-curriculum-based inquiry and may help students engage with climate change policies worldwide. “India is one of the countries likely to be highly affected by climate change,” says Nirmala Raghunandan, Head, Department of Biology, St. Joseph’s pre-university college, Bengaluru. “Introducing this module in Indian schools could be really useful as it can help sensitise students to the effects of climate change, and educate the next generation of leaders and decision makers on how climate change can affect evolution,” she adds.

Mathematics evokes images of numbers and symbols – biology graduates see it (or are assumed to see it) as a dry, complicated, and abstract subject. However, the learning of biology (particularly the fields of ecology and evolutionary biology) has a strong component of mathematical reasoning to it. Biology teachers often struggle to make mathematics interesting. Studies have shown that relating statistical concepts to real-world problems or using physical objects to demonstrate concepts could be effective tools to increase student understanding. Recently, a group of ecology educators added colour to explaining applied statistical concepts using sweet candies!

Most ecological fieldwork involves estimation of species population and species diversity. These estimates tell how the population of species changes over time and area. Decreasing populations signal a species is not doing well, and may require interventions to help them thrive, allowing for planned conservation efforts. The population estimation exercise includes capturing a sample of animals, marking and releasing them back into the wild so that they mingle in the population. After a passage of time, another group of animals are captured. Some of these would already have been marked, and some not. This exercise leads to population estimation - based on the fact that the number of marked animals captured is proportional to the number of marked animals in the entire population. This method assumes that the size of the population does not change during the study period. A new study reports using M&Ms, similar to Cadbury Gems, to teach population and diversity index - key concepts in ecology.

Colourful candies can be used as a good substitute when field-based learning is not possible. Each pack of candies represents a closed community, that is, no candy enters or leaves the pack. The different colours can represent different species in a community. Students are divided into groups and each group is given a package of candy. Each group pours the candy into a container with a lid and counts the number of candies of each colour. The colour with the highest number of candies is noted. Closing their eyes, the students pick a few candies one by one. Candies of the colour with the most number are marked, either by scratching lightly or using a non-toxic marker. The candies are returned to the container and shaken well to redistribute them. The same number of candies as chosen the first time is again selected. The students then count the number of marked samples obtained during the second picking.

Using appropriate formulae (Lincoln-Petersen index) students can estimate the population index. Once this exercise is completed, they can join groups, combining their candies to mimic a larger population size and recalculating the population index. This would provide them an understanding of how population size affects estimates. By extending the exercise further, the diversity index, i.e. number of different species of animals in the community can be calculated (Shannon-Weaver index). The diversity index is based on the idea that in a very diverse community, if you pick one member, the probability that the next member will belong to the same species is low.

The authors reported that students found the candy exercise useful in understanding ecological concepts. Students were able to use the same techniques as on field researchers, giving them a sense of practical fieldwork. According to the authors, the idea can be also extended to help students learn other biological concepts, such as adaptation and basic genetics. Best of all, the students can eat the candies at the end of class! “The method is absolutely elegant and feasible (and delicious),” says Vidya Jonnalagadda, a biologist who teaches at the Bhavan’s Vivekananda College in Hyderabad. This is something that she might try to use in her classroom to discuss probability, sampling, and confidence interval in biostatistics. In her decade-long experience of teaching biostatistics to post-graduate students, Vidya finds the main problem to be the inability of students to think numerically. She adds, “We do a great disservice to our students by bifurcating the math and biology streams at the +2 level.”

Training of mathematical reasoning in biology is important, with specialized fields such as bioinformatics, theoretical biology, and mathematical modelling contributing to a rising proportion of biological research. In India, there has been a significant growth in curriculum in mathematical biology at the post-graduate level. However, the question remains - how to make mathematics less of the seemingly abstract stuff and more about the concepts that students can easily relate to. Innovative ideas are needed for biology students at the high school or undergraduate level, who at least in India, traditionally have had a less rigorous mathematical curriculum.

Global environment demands universities and colleges to be centres of innovation. Faculty have to balance the expectations of good teaching as well as creation of knowledge through active research. Additionally, our early education system hardly offers enquiry-based learning, limiting the ability of graduates to serve the needs of technology industry and academia. The onus for filling this gap in education falls on the overburdened Indian faculty. In such a scenario, how does conducting active research fare against classroom teaching?

Several studies have explored the relationship between a teacher’s research activity and teaching performance. A study conducted at the International University of Catalonia Spain explored this relationship using a large dataset of students enrolled in 229 courses (spread across the disciplines of architecture, health and social sciences). The authors explored the relationship to be - positive (mutually reinforcing), negative (conflicting) or neutral (no effect). One of the major conclusions of the study was that for a teacher conducting active research, teaching commitments could be challenging. We here explore this relationship in the Indian context through discussions with senior educators.

One hypothesis suggests good quality teaching to be an outcome of cutting edge knowledge gained during research – a reinforcing, positive relationship. Research training of educators, “Increases the chance of their students’ exposure to emerging ideas, facilities and methodologies” says Subhas C. Lakhotia, Distinguished Professor, Banaras Hindu University. He further emphasizes “An active researcher is open to questions and encourages students to develop an enquiring mind.” Bimalendu B. Nath, Professor, S.P. Pune University adds “A teacher with a training in research helps develop a methodology of curiosity based learning process in the classroom.”

For improving the pedagogy of teachers through active research we need to assess if quality research is indeed practised. Unfortunately, a large proportion of faculty in our universities and colleges suffer from the lack of adequate infrastructure. Addressing this, Lakhotia says “An educator could discover knowledge through reading, discussions and discourses. This is the simplest way for an educator not involved in active research to deliver up-to-date knowledge.” Bimal Nath adds “When students gain knowledge by questioning 'how' 'when' and 'why'- then the pedagogy becomes meaningful. In case of a dearth of resources, an ideal teacher can motivate students to think”. Such inspiring stories of teachers’ efforts can be found here.

Other thinkers of the field - like Parker and Serow consider teaching and research to be conflicting engagements. They attribute the conflict to the evaluation process for faculty promotion and appraisal that clearly favour research activities over teaching. Young academicians who need to carve out a career might not be motivated to invest time in teaching. Senior academicians attribute this outcome to 'university rankings’ that are biased towards innovative research.

It is important here to delineate the goal of universities and colleges. Universities are more focussed on research, while colleges thrust on the learning process. MHRD has relaxed the criteria of API (Annual Performance Index) allowing college teachers to focus on teaching – hitting two birds with one stone – the move might also curb the rise of predatory journals. The evaluation of college teachers will be based on teaching performance, whereas, university teachers would be graded on research output. Research shall no longer be mandatory for the promotion of college teachers. Interestingly, grades can be also earned via other meaningful engagements like social work, adoption of a village, aiding students in extra-curricular activities and uploading subject course on Swayam.

Lakhotia suggests another criteria for assessment - “Every teacher should be assessed by students.” Taking students’ feedback for every class is, in principle, necessarily required (as per the UGC and NAAC guidelines). To this Lakhotia says “ This rarely happens and thus teaching is not objectively rewarded.” Student feedback taken anonymously can be shared with teachers for self-review. This can also be used as a metric for promotion, much like the modern school management practices followed around the globe.

The third scenario indicates that teaching and the knowledge production process are independent tasks – and require separate sets of preparation and personality traits. Lakhotia does not concur – “Teaching and research are mutually reinforcing. I learned from my students; our discussions provided a previously unthought of direction to my research. Moreover, a researcher’s questioning mind is an inspiration for students.” He suggests that emphasis should be placed on aligning the curriculum with the research interests of lecturers.

India is home to one of the world’s largest education systems – considering the number of institutes for higher education and the number of students. With the long overdue education policy being drafted, steps towards improving the higher education should include teacher skill development. A well-informed teacher can create a well-equipped student, ready to face the real world.

My first academic thrill came from a ‘quick and dirty’ little protocol our undergraduate class used to extract DNA from an agarose gel slice. We used sterilized Eppendorf tubes, an aged and erratic centrifuge, a brand-new gel electrophoresis kit, and DNA samples scrounged from a nearby research laboratory.

To us, the experiment was a vicarious form of research.

Most educators will agree that good teaching must focus on helping students become independent learners—practical experience and training are crucial for this process. Though many educational institutions today have laboratories equipped with the necessary instruments (and reagents) for basic biology/molecular biology experiments, many do not. Furthermore, such ‘experiments’ are often no more than demonstrations carried out by teachers.

Scientific laboratories are expensive

Since molecular biology is one of the most widely utilized sub-fields in biology, let’s estimate the finances of a functional laboratory. A quick cost-estimation comes to a staggering total—at least 20 lakhs—for basic requirements such as a centrifuge (2–6 L), a PCR machine (5–6 L), electrophoresis chambers and power packs (0.5–1 L), a bacterial incubator (0.5 L), microscopes (0.5–1 L), and a spectrophotometer (4–5 L). In addition to one-time buys like hardware, the cost of chemicals, reagents, and maintenance for a laboratory with ten working students may exceed 1 L per year.

“When I began setting up a research lab for undergraduates roughly 10 years ago, just the cost of readying the space and buying instruments cost us 10–15 L,” says Urmi Bajpai, ateacher at Acharya Narendra Dev College, New Delhi, who has headed and still runs several research projects powered by undergraduate students. “The concept of involving students in undergraduate research projects has proven to be a great one! It definitely requires hard work and patience but is worth the effort,” she adds. In a previous article, Bajpai mentions the initial grants that got her laboratory going—these, unsurprisingly, run into lakhs of rupees.

Such expenses are not unique to the area of molecular biology; ecologists, neuroscientists, botanists, biochemists—whatever be the field of pursuit—there are incredibly useful commercial products that may not fit the expense budget.

The bottom line is, experiments in biology can be expensive.

Given such costs, can undergraduate students, amateur scientists, or science hobbyists undertake biology experiments without the support of a professional laboratory or an academic institution?

Surprisingly, the answer is yes! There are several ways in which an interested person can contribute to a research project or carry out biology experiments on a shoe-string budget.

Ultra-low-cost solutions to expensive equipment: frugal science

The first name that comes to mind when mulling over the concept of an inexpensive laboratory machine is Manu Prakash. A Professor of Bioengineering at the Stanford University, USA, Prakash runs a curiosity-driven lab, has created major cracks in the instrument-expense-barrier with his foldscope and paperfuge. Prakash describes his group’s innovations as ‘frugal science’ solutions to the problem of insufficient resources.

The foldscope is an ultra-low-cost microscope made of paper, which currently costs less than 2 USD (roughly 150 Rupees) and can provide magnification (up to 140X) and resolution (down to 2 microns) similar to those of conventional research microscopes. The paperfuge is a whirligig-based paper centrifuge which can be run by hand, costs roughly 20 cents (15 Rupees), weighs only 2 grams, and can achieve speed of up to 25,000 revolutions per minute.

Locally sourced, build-it-yourself systems

Scientists are slowly clambering out of their ivory towers to acknowledge the need for low-cost robust equipment not only for teaching purposes, but also for scientists on small budgets to help generate preliminary data for risky but promising projects. One laudable effort at equipment construction comes from a recent publication in the Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, which details the fabrication of a Morris water maze using locally sourced materials. This maze was used by undergraduates to study the effects of diet-induced obesity on cognitive function in rats. The total cost of maze construction, including the tracking system and analysis software cost the authors ~1500 USD, whereas, commercially available mazes from companies such as Ugo Basile or San Diego Instruments cost ~5000 USD.

“Constructing your own equipment, provided you have the time for tinkering and standardization, can be most rewarding. Not only do you gain an in-depth understanding of the system, the fabrication costs using locally sourced material are generally a fraction of what you would spend on a commercial product,” says Urvashi Bhattacharyya, a neurobiologist who works as a technical manager at the Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine in Bangalore. Although Bhattacharyya (who worked on rat olfaction for her PhD) designed her own experimental arena because no commercial products met her exact specifications, points out why commercial systems are a big boon to some. “If you do not have the expertise (valuable for precision and accuracy) or time to do build your own system, I would advise using a commercial product,” she says.

“Behavior systems, especially tracking software, can be excruciatingly expensive,” says Bhattacharyya. “So, the work in this paper was pragmatic and commendable, especially since they were able to replicate the basic experimental results in the maze,” she adds.

Another area of research where innovations are rife is in ecology. “When I was studying hornbills in Dandeli, I needed a quick, inexpensive way to measure canopy density. That’s when I came across a publication from the 1970s, which explained how a simple densiometer could be constructed out of cardboard and string,” says Sneha Vijaykumar, who recently completed her PhD from the Indian Institute of Science. “I was an MSc student with no money to buy a fancy densiometer, but managed to construct one, and gathered some useful broad-range data with it. I think that instruments and innovations like these are such good resources for students. What’s even more amazing is that with the appropriate instructions, this construct can still be used by teachers to conduct canopy cover survey lessons for students,” she adds.

A whole new dimension to build-it-yourself instruments: The advent of open source hardware

In 2003, the Arduino project was started by the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in Italy, to help provide supplies for creating low-cost devices that could interact with their environment—robots, thermostats, and motion detectors. Currently, Arduino is an open source hardware and software company, project, and user community that provides microcontrollers and kits for building digital devices and interactive objects. Arduino has spurred many advances including a do-it-yourself construction kit to build a PCR machine, which is currently available for 599 USD from the OpenPCR project.

Besides Arduino, a global community focused on biohacking can provide simplified step-by-step instructions for constructing molecular biology instruments such as agarose gel electrophoresis kits.

Community laboratories and citizen science projects

The biohacking or ‘modern do-it-yourself biology laboratory’ movement began to gain momentum in 2008 with groups such as Hacketeria, DIYbio, and GOSH (gathering for open science hardware). These groups are usually international communities of scientists, hackers, and artists, who believe in interdisciplinary cooperation, and practice DIY (do-it-yourself) or DIWO (do-it-with-others) biology. Biohacking hasresulted in the birth of community laboratories such as GaudiLabs and BioCurious. GaudiLabs organizes regular ‘hack sprints’, where people interested in a particular subject meet and work together for short and intense hacking sessions. One such session has produced an optical tweezer which can be constructed for <100 USD using harvested lasers from old DVD drives. Some of the current projects at BioCurious are the BioPrinter (to design an open source DIY cell printer) and the Open Insulin Project (aimed at finding newer, simpler, less-expensive ways to produce insulin).

In addition to community laboratories, an average citizen, student, or science hobbyist can contribute to low-budget scientific endeavors by participating in citizen science projects. These are crowd-sourced, community-based projects where volunteers gather information which is pooled and analyzed by a core team of organizers. In India, MigrantWatch is an excellent example of citizen science. Over its duration (from July 2007–August 2015) participants have uploaded over 30,000 migrant bird sightings; although the project has now stopped accepting uploads, it has partnered with the global birding platform eBird to continue listing and recording sightings in India. SeasonWatch is an ongoing project that aims at monitoring seasonal changes in trees; all the data collected is freely available to participants who can analyze the records to explore how seasonal leafing, flowering, and fruiting patterns of trees have been altered (or not?) by climate change.

Low-cost science in India: are we there yet?

Although we as a nation pride ourselves on our innovative hacks when faced with insufficiency, Indian science has not yet reached its peak in JuGAaD (Justified Guideline to Achieve the Desired State). It is highly probable that our laboratories have academic pasts littered with useful, practical, and low-cost alternatives to many scientific instruments and protocols. Many of these remain unrecorded, or may have been lost to the ever-looming spectre of ‘professionalism’. After all, a result recorded with a commercially produced, well-tested product will be more believable than a locally constructed hack.

It is, however, important to note that such hacks should be recorded and preserved in the interests of frugal science. It is hoped that India’s entry into the ‘science hack days’ forum since 2016 will encourage more minds to think of newer low-cost, innovative alternatives to expensive gadgets. Do look out for ‘Science Hack Day India 2018’, which will be held in Belgaum from 12^th to 14^th October this year—don’t forget to sign up if you have a cool science hack idea!

Could you give us a glimpse of the organization’s archival collection?

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) is a premier taxonomical research institution headquartered at Kolkata along with 16 regional centres spread across the country. ZSI was established as a small unit at the Indian Museum in 1916 to promote survey, exploration and research of the exceptionally rich faunal diversity of the country. We hold over 5 million specimens of Protozoa and Mammalia for ex-situ conservation. The historical collection of invertebrate groups (ticks, mites, spiders, scorpions, butterflies, moths, beetles, flies and bugs) is a reference for revisionary taxonomic studies. The collection also includes specimens of India’s species facing extinction risk like the Pink-Headed Duck and the Malabar Civet.

What is the current research focus of ZSI?

We are committed to the task of conducting faunistic explorations and collection from the diverse biogeographical zones including the protected areas of the country. Along with taxonomic explorations, ZSI is currently assessing the effect of climate change on the faunal diversity of the Indian Himalaya. We have compiled the information of 30,377 species and subspecies of animals and protozoans from the Himalayan biotic provinces. This study is unique as it assesses the impact of climate change, habitat degradation and forest fragmentation on the diversity, distribution, and abundance of select insect species – viz. high altitude apollo butterflies, moths, and wild bees. Vertebrate species (pheasants, pika, marmot, Himalayan newt, and a few species of frogs and bats) are being used as the indicator species to model the change in the climatic conditions.

India is one of the megadiverse countries of the world - holding 2.4% of land and enriched with more than 6.4% global faunal diversity. We are developing a website for the fauna of India, complete with taxonomic account of the species, their distributional maps, and the habitus images of the species.

Can you please shed some light on the projects involved in DNA barcoding of endemic organisms?

Molecular taxonomy is an add-on tool for modern systematics as it helps distinguish closely related species. ZSI has well-equipped DNA laboratory at the Kolkata headquarters and at four regional centres (Dehradun, Hyderabad, Pune, and Chennai). DNA barcode data of more than 4,000 (fresh and museum specimens at National Zoological Collection) has been generated and uploaded on global database (BOLD and GenBank).

We have also initiated the sequencing of whole mitochondrial genome of ultra-conserved regions for understating the phylogeny of fauna, and their evolution.

In addition to barcoding of endemic animals, we are generating a genomic library of threatened and schedule fauna of India - for use in wildlife crime control and formulating recovery and management plans.

What are the research fellowship programs and training offered by the organization?

ZSI has regular fellowship for doctoral and post-doctoral researchers (Junior Research and Project Fellowships, Senior Research Fellowships, Research Associateships and Post-Doctoral Research Fellowships) in the field of biodiversity conservation. For creating a second line of taxonomists in India, the JRFs and SRFs are encouraged pursue a doctorate with scientists at ZSI.

We regularly organise training on

• collection, preservation, and identification of zoological specimens
• tools and techniques in molecular systematics, and
• the use of geographical information system in zoological research

for students, researchers and conservation practitioners. Details of our upcoming trainings can be found here.

ZSI has also trained students under Green Skill Development Programme for skill development in environment and sustainable measures. Training is also imparted to enforcement agencies engaged in wildlife crime control (Custom Department, Sashastra Seema Bal and the Wildlife Crime Bureau).

What is your opinion on an educative publication to introduce readers to nation’s biodiversity? Does ZSI publish any such resource?

We annually update the information on the faunal wealth of our country in the form of a compendium - ‘Animal Discoveries - New Species and New Records’. In the year 2017, a total of 300 new species have been discovered, the rich fauna of India now includes more than 1,01,167 species! Our most significant documents include baseline information for identifying groups of animals for young and trained taxonomists (Fauna of British India, Fauna of India and Adjacent Countries).

In the last couple of years, ZSI has brought out significant contributions such as Faunal Diversity of the Indian Himalaya, the Current Status series (Marine Faunal Diversity, Freshwater Diversity, Estuarine Faunal Diversity of India, Fauna of Sunderban Biosphere Reserve) and the DNA Barcode Fauna of India. For young readers and nature enthusiasts, ZSI regularly publishes Handbook and Pictorial Guides on a large group of fascinating animals. All the publications are freely accessible at www.faunaofindia.nic.in.

What are your insights on the state of threatened species endemic to India?

As per IUCN Red List-2018, there are about 683 animal species from India that are threatened (Critically Endangered - 78, Endangered - 209, and Vulnerable - 396). As for the threatened species - 60% of mammals, 30% of amphibians, and 40% of birds are endemic to India (http://www.iucnredlist.org/).

Few threatened endemic species are Salim Ali's Fruit Bat, Andaman Horseshoe Bat, Leafletted Leaf-nosed Bat/ Kolar Leaf-nosed Bat, Cochin Forest Cane Turtle, and Sispara Day Gecko.

What role does ZSI play in policymaking? What are the focus areas?

ZSI is an advisor to the GoI (and a member of advisory board of state government) in matters of faunal diversity and wildlife conservation. ZSI also plays a significant role in the formulation and amendment of - Wildlife (Protection) Act (WPA) 1972, Biodiversity Act 2002, Coastal Zone Management Act and Forest Act.

The monitoring and assessment of endemic fauna have to be undertaken on a priority basis. Quantitative assessment of fauna of the 769 protected areas and eco-sensitive zones is imperative.

Conservation and management plans have to be drafted for threatened fauna. For conservation planning of the biodiversity hotspots of India, three national faunal repositories are being developed at Port Blair for Sunda Island fauna, at Solan for Western Himalayan fauna and Kozhikode for Western Ghats fauna.

What are the perks of being a scientist at ZSI?

Our job at ZSI is fascinating and unique; we get to visit remote areas for sampling and observing the behaviour of animals. Each year, the scientists at ZSI conduct extensive surveys at beautiful places like the Nicobar group of islands, North-eastern Hills, Eastern Himalayas of Arunachal Pradesh, and the Trans Himalaya of Ladakh.

The discovery of a new species provides utmost satisfaction - the scientist’s name associates with that species and is immortalized in scientific history.

What are the challenges of being a scientist at ZSI?

We have to be cautious while observing wild animals (as well as tiny insects!) since we cannot gauge their reaction to our presence. Working in harsh terrains of the Himalayas has been challenging as our scientists faced difficulty in travel and finding lodging. It is also quite complicated to work in Naxalite affected areas and under the threat of a dacoit encounter.

We solicited Rajvanshi's opinion on education and its role in motivating the exploration of indigenous problems.

What according to you are indigenous problems and what are the perks of solving them?

All my work is centered around this one thought – “how to improve the quality of life of our rural population.” Any time spent on the study of this idea could qualify as working on an indigenous problem. I would suggest interested people to visit the rural livelihood. To youth who is motivated to work in this area, my question would be - “what is it that fires your imagination?”

I believe that fundamental science and technology can be created by practicing applied science - I term it as the “Langmuir approach”. Irving Langmuir was an industrial chemist who won the Nobel Prize for discovering atomic hydrogen and establishing the field of surface chemistry while developing a light bulb for GE. Our scientists at premier scientific establishments much too often work in areas of interest only to the western world - probably since they can publish in international journals. However, since 30% of our population is poor and 15% undernourished, it provides a large bed of challenges for scientists to study, assess, research and offer solutions. Working on such problems offers the advantage of novelty and creation of fundamental science.

The innovations of NARI stem from an experimental zeal, has that zeal explored the field of education?

When my wife and I decided to start base in Phaltan, there were no good kindergarten and elementary schools. We founded a school - Kamala Nimbkar Bal Bhavan (KNB) and enrolled our daughter - the school graduated up a standard along with my elder daughter! We initially faced reluctance as parents preferred English to a Marathi medium school, now, with the results nearing 100% (for 10^th standard), we receive hundreds of applications. It might come as a surprise that a lot of the school students are little journalists! Their reporting about their region and school can be found at the blog: KNB bulletin. The effort was fruitful as most alumni including my daughters have had successful careers (my younger daughter is a teacher at KNB, other notable alumni include the head of a literacy module operating at 150 Zila Parishad schools and the head of Balwadi programme at Pragat Shikshan Sanstha).

I focus on ethics and feel strongly about its teaching in schools, that in fact, is the mandate of the school. It’s the teacher’s job to provide role models to students in the fields they are interested in. The culture of good work has to be ingrained early – for example it is important for students to know the relevance of learning, as opposed to the mindset of qualifying exams. I, therefore, feel that experts in their own fields should regularly interact with schools of their cities/towns.

Another important area that needs attention is the teaching of the development or the history of science - discussing the lives of scientists, the challenges they faced and their contributions. The iconic figures of science could be good role models to students.

Your opinion on the state of higher education in India?

I feel that the curriculum of science and engineering colleges needs to be modified to emphasize on hands-on work. Students should do functional projects that will help them develop an interest in research. Education should focus on using analytical skills in problem solving. Students can then apply this methodology in any field they choose to pursue.

Students can also be exposed to research during their school days – for example, by emulating the USA-based - Maker Movement. The USA has an old tradition of youngsters tinkering in their garages - making household items and developing revolutionizing softwares! With 3D printing technologies and emphasis on hands-on training, schools in USA are making students interested in creating designs and toys. If introduced to students here in India, it is possible that they could engineer and create hardware oriented products early in their education.

Together with emphasis on research, the curriculum needs to include the topics of social entrepreneurship and technical management. Social entrepreneurship should introduce the students to the problems of rural India and the usage of science and engineering in solving them.

What according to you are key areas in agriculture that require innovative thrust? Are there possibilities of intervention by policymakers?

I have identified 3 key areas : rainwater harvesting, energy harvesting and precision agriculture. Rainwater harvesting has the potential to impact agriculture as well as watershed development.

The technology development requires large-scale deployment of qualified engineers - thus the technology and its management should be made a compulsory minor in all engineering and agricultural curricula.

India produces 600–800 million tonnes of agricultural residue per year (post-harvest plant remnants). A major portion of this dry residue is burnt in the fields and responsible for creating a brown haze over the subcontinent – also, an alarming contributor to climate change. Theoretically this residue has the potential of producing close to 80,000 MW of electricity through biomass - nearly 50% of India’s total installed capacity! Farmers need to be incentivized for using the agricultural residue.

Currently, 80% of farms in India are less than 2 hectares in size. This small farm size is actually a boon, as it allows the use of small autonomous machines for precision agriculture which includes timely and precise crop management, consequently increasing productivity. Since precision farming is mostly robot and drone driven, students might be attracted to it. We need creative programmes in engineering and agricultural sciences to sustain this interest.

Policymakers and government could encourage industries to pursue research for rural areas as a part of their corporate social responsibility (CSR). Government gives sops and tax write-offs to the corporate sector to the tune of INR 5320 billion per year. This is in addition to the billions that the Indian banks write off as bad loans. Incidentally, this much money is five times more than the entire subsidy given to the poor via the Public Distribution System scheme. The prescribed 2% limit of spending on CSR can be increased by the government, hopefully enhancing funding towards rural research.

The mark of your innovations can be seen in their impact; however, you publish only in Indian journals. Why is that so?

I have three reasons for publishing in domestic journals:

• Papers are published relatively fast
• The journals charge no or very little money
• With the upward trend of science communication, our work reaches a bigger audience, even if we do not publish in famous journals

As far as research is concerned, I do not believe in metrics but in the true impact of the work, and feel sad that scientists are judged by the number of publications (and their impact factor). We started work on the electric powered cycle rickshaw in 1995 and published it later in 2002 in Current Science. We are proud that this paper popularized the concept of e-rickshaws throughout the country.

How can the youth community join your organization?

They can join us as interns – though we do not pay! Accommodation will be provided, and once you settle in, sky is the limit! Imagination, hard work (and a streak of madness!) is what we are looking for. A key contribution we are looking for is the enterprising zeal of the youth: to manufacture and market our products. Contact us if you are passionate about nation-building.

With technology at fingertips there is enough information available to students, in every field imaginable. The need of the hour, however, is to develop critical thinking that can scrutinise regularly fed incorrect or partially correct information. A teacher’s task thus expands from just imparting information-based knowledge to developing skills. One way to achieve that is to involve students in scientific experiments – a way to unbiased, critical thinking based on a set of observations.

We at the Fly Facility, National Centre of Biological Sciences in collaboration with Mount Carmel college organized a two day faculty training program on March 1^st and 2^nd, 2018. The idea was to devise simple, curiosity-based experiments for college students. Our ulterior motive was to guide them in the scientific concepts of reproducibility, statistics, controls, and unbiased methodology! Faculty from the department of zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, electronics and mathematics were included. The title of our interdisciplinary initiative was - “Drosophila, a teaching tool to understand the fundamental concepts of biology.”

On the first day at Mount Carmel College we had interactive presentations from myself (Deepti Trivedi, Drosophila Technology Scientist, Fly Facility) and Aman Aggarwal (graduate student in Prof. VijayRaghavan’s lab, NCBS). It was followed by a brief introduction highlighting the simplicity of Drosophila melanogaster as a tool for understanding the fundamental principles of biology. We also visited the various departments of Mount Carmel to look at the experimental possibilities using existing resources.

On the second day, sixteen faculty and six students joined us at NCBS. They were introduced to Drosophila, its genetics and modern tools and assays used to understand complex biological phenomena (neurobiology, development, and disease). Students and teachers dug into the climbing, crawling and flight assays - they were mesmerized by flies playing football! All of them caught on to the hands-on experiments and were eager to introduce flies into their curriculum. Prof. VijayRaghavan (Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India) shared some of his insights regarding public science outreach and initiatives at the college level during one of the sessions.

The fly and the football experiment:

The fly tries to hold onto and move on the surface. Here the wings of the fly are stuck to the slide and its legs are in the air. When introduced, it quickly latches onto the styrofoam bead and tries to walk on it. However, since the fly itself is stationary, the bead moves. A simple assay like this can used to study the brain and muscle of the flies.

This was our first such initiative and we mutually benefitted during the process. We learnt that simple experiments (without the requirement of a fancy equipment) can be used by college and school students to learn about biological phenomena. We also realised that experimentation strengthens the abilities of scientific rigour, critical thinking, observation and hypothesis building.

We regularly train young scientists starting into research. However, we strongly feel that developing the interest of public and young minds to scientific methods is fruitful for raising future citizens. We invite teachers of high schools and colleges to approach us for workshop and/or demonstrations. Please contact us at fly@ncbs.res.in.

What teaching aids/methods have become obsolete? If you could bring change at a systemic level, what would you suggest?

Charu: I do not believe any method has become obsolete per se. However, a blend of various aids such as chalk-board and digital tools could become important. The diversity of students we teach is large, so a wholescale adoption of either of these methods might not be suitable. I thus believe some content knowledge should be imparted through straightaway dissemination. Additionally, the concept of giving assignments involving copying from text book should be done away with – the assignments should involve critical thinking.

Smitha: Chalk-board is still the most effective method of drawing a draft sketch of the topics, however, PowerPoint presentations can be fillers (with colours and images) for better understanding. OHPs have become obsolete.

As far as bringing change is concerned, we need to reduce the content of lecture based syllabus delivery. At undergraduate level, 6 hours of theory and 4 hours practical per subject, per week seems sufficient. Also, equal weightage should be given to theory and practical in terms of syllabus as well as credits. I would suggest that the student time table should have mandatory self-study hours. Average contact hours is nearly 30-32 hours per week. It should be limited to 28-30 hours. 40 plus hours, that a few colleges boast of, should be discouraged as it is inhumane and kills the spirit of self-learning.

Vidya: Most of my students prefer the chalk-talk method; in fact they dislike PowerPoint presentations. I support their choice because the chalk-talk is more flexible and spontaneous.

Most educators believe that lectures are—or should be—obsolete because the outcome in terms of student learning is far inferior to active-learning methods. However, I have found that being an only teacher who uses a different teaching method is hard on the students. For example, my aim is to flip the classroom, but it has not worked yet (trying since past 10 years) because the students simply do not read the textbook before coming to class (maybe they never read it!). The sad and challenging part of my class is that students see the class as something they need to sit through to earn enough attendance to qualify for appearing in the final exams. Asking them to work by themselves or in groups often causes stress and under-confidence. Even in the statistics class, where I give them a customised workbook to solve questions, most students wait for me or someone to solve the problem and then just note down the answer. In this context, even when we solve problems using MS Excel, students are reluctant to try exploring the power of computer spreadsheets; each year I see a few students adding up numbers on their cell phones and then entering the result in the Excel sheet. Funny, yes, but also very sad! Therefore, I think that (at least my) students first need to become comfortable with a new method of teaching before they accept it as a good replacement for the traditional lecture.

By the time I see them—usually in M.Sc., or sometimes in B.Sc.—they are pretty set in their expectations of what a teacher does in a classroom. So, at a systemic level, teachers may need to be trained in non-lecture modes of teaching and perhaps given a few sample lessons/exercises to make them feel confident about a new pedagogical tool. Once all (or most of) the teachers start using different methods of teaching, students too will learn how to learn in alternate ways.

It is also a real challenge for the teachers to firstly design and implement activities that require innovative thinking, and secondly to get students motivated to participate with original work (and not duplicate projects seen on the internet). In this respect, I think the activity of “scientific writing”, where we provide outline diagrams of an experiment and ask students to describe and interpret the results, holds great potential. I call it “virtual witnessing”, in which student participation is motivated by some small recognition.

A new national policy on education is being drafted. What key areas would you want to be addressed in the new policy?

Charu: A key component in the new policy needs to be enquiry/research based learning and the implementation of the same needs to start at the foundational levels, where rote based learning gives way to student’s own/ self-initiated learning. Unfortunately, by the time students reach college, they are so used to the rote system that we are not able to bring about much change. This level of training needs to be applied to the teachers too, and can be used as a part of their assessment. The policy should be at a national level and should also include skill based knowledge dissemination to enable an innovative line of thinking.

Smitha: The policy makers should limit the content and instead improve its validity and quality. Equal weightage for practical and theory for science topics should be introduced. Focus should also be on improving the working condition of teachers – not hiring contract teachers will improve the quality of teaching. If research is also introduced as a part of the curriculum, then the teacher: student ratio should be maintained at 1:6.

Vidya: Moving away from rewarding (only) rote learning with good grades is the primary need of the National Policy on Education. However, teachers themselves might value the memorization of obscure facts and hence may not be able to set up classrooms/examination systems where creativity and individuality are fostered and rewarded.

Secondly, the syllabus needs to be updated regularly to be of topical interest. For example, at least 10% of the syllabus should cover events that happened in the past 5 years, around 10% of the syllabus should cover events that occurred in the previous 5-10 years, and around 10% should cover events that occurred within the country/state or region. This will encourage the faculty to develop content with a current and regional flavour.

What kind of research do you bring into your teaching? How do you address the gap in knowledge between curriculum books and the latest in the field?

Charu: Before introducing a new topic, I ask students to collect updated information relevant to that area. I occasionally bring new research papers, or ask the class to read into its background information. This is to give them an idea of scientific reading and self-initiated exploration of a topic. While giving questions related to the content, I often suggest resources for exploration. Discussions related to the topic are held in the next session.

I also stress on the evolution of methodology and experimental protocols. I encourage them to refine experimental results by educating themselves with the advancements in techniques.

Smitha: I try to update students on the latest theories and events regarding my core subject. I continually attempt to translate the curriculum into meaningful hands on experience.

Vidya: For teaching tips (or research into teaching methodology), I follow Edutopia. The site provides excellent insights into student behaviour and motivation. I also follow the blog, Cult of Pedagogy. Each month, I generally read 2-5 articles from these blogs.

For subject-specific research, I look for review articles on the topic I am assigned each semester. I also write a “class textbook” for each course that I teach which includes the latest findings (printed notes covering the syllabus material well as related historical and/or recent findings). Each textbook has 25-30 pages of material for each “unit” of the syllabus; a course can have 2 to 4 units.

In our class discussion, I often ask students to look up some interesting topics related to the syllabus, but I do not include it in the grading system. I also run a facebook page for our college science club (voluntary activity open to all students) where I briefly describe recent or interesting findings related to biology (However, this page has been dormant this year due to various other activities. I hope to revive it when the college reopens).

How do you and your institute help students reach decisions about their future careers?

Charu: We do have institutional placements and invited seminars, but not much counselling is available to students. My own approach is to encourage them to choose what they are happy to learn and to explore resources in their subject. Within the DBT star college project, I ask them to choose their own topics, do a feasibility check based on the resources available in the lab, and then explore the topic in depth. I also call alumni from different fields so that students can connect or relate to them.

Smitha: We have a very active career guidance cell. We also have student- mentor groups (each faculty has 10 students to mentor). We conduct sessions on how to face interview, how to write CV and take sessions on how to face life, married life etc. I am also the student welfare officer. I counsel and mentor them on an issue to issue basis. The cells are constituted as per NAAC requirements by the institution, however the level of efforts may vary from teacher to teacher.

Vidya: There is a strong institutional-level effort to mentor our students for science-related careers. The institute conducts several visits to local industries/labs and national research centres, guest lectures from scientists, and an annual lecture series where they present their own project work in an inter-college competition.

In contrast, preparation for non-science careers is mostly left to the student based on their individual interests. There are outreach activities in the college in collaboration with local and national NGOs. Since our college became autonomous a few years ago, students can also opt for courses in other departments such as mass communication, languages, and commerce. However, we need to put in more effort in this direction by liaisons with people in other fields who can explain the opportunities in their areas and expectations of prospective employers.

Check this space for the second part of this interview where the teachers discuss the future of dissemination and their expectations from policy makers.

"Don't waste a good mistake; learn from it." - Robert Kiyosaki, Author- Rich Dad, Poor Dad

Making mistakes is part and parcel of learning. If used constructively, errors can be a wonderful tool in a teacher’s stockpile of resources for instructing students. Another extensively used resource is visual presentation—the art of conveying an idea or concept with a picture, a diagram, or flow chart. A recent study from the University of Kiel in Germany shows that these two teaching aids can be combined to help students gain a better understanding of abstract concepts such as energy flows in ecosystems.

The study demonstrates that when students are given a flawed diagram explaining a concept and asked to spot and explain errors in it, they attain a better grasp of that concept than those asked to learn with accurate diagrams. However, this approach requires three specific conditions—that the symbology in a diagram must be absolutely clear, that students must already have a good understanding of the subject, and finally, students must be willing to study such diagrams closely and thoroughly.

The idea of deliberately introducing errors, a concept known as ‘negative knowledge’ or the ‘knowledge of how something is not, in contrast to how it really is’ has been applied in teaching mathematics, its use in classrooms to tackle conceptual misunderstandings however, is not widespread.

Amongst students, most errors occur due to partial understanding or misunderstandings in abstract concepts such as that of energy. When learning about energy flow in biological systems, many students harbor two major misconceptions – one, that plants can obtain energy from soil, and two, that energy can be cycled within an ecosystem. Using these misconceptions, researchers introduced the error in the form of an additional arrow (circled in the image above) and tested the effectiveness of three teaching strategies. In group one, students given a flawed energy-flow diagram were asked to find the error and explain why it was an error. A second group was given the flawed diagram with the error highlighted and were tasked with explaining the error. While in the third group, students were simply handed the correct diagram, and asked to learn about energy flow in an ecosystem. Students were tested on energy-flow concepts before the given task (pre-test), and once again after they completed the task (post-test). The differences in scores between the pre-test and post-test were used as a measure of how much students had learnt from the tasks.

Overall, students from all groups scored more in the post-test than the pre-test, indicating that they had gained an improved understanding of energy flow after the tasks. Closer analysis of the data showed that students from group 1 and 2 who had correctly explained the error seemed to have learnt more than students in group 3, or the unsuccessful students in groups 1 and 2.

The most striking finding was that only 10% of group 1 students were able to correctly identify and explain the error in the diagram. Compared to their peers who could not complete the task, these students had spent more time focusing on studying the diagram to spot the error. In contrast to group 1, nearly 30% of the students in group 2 explained the error correctly, indicating that spotting an error requires much more cognitive focus than having the error pointed out and needing to explain it. The researchers also found that the successful students in this group had better knowledge of energy concepts than others in the same group.

In essence, inserting errors in diagrams can help learning only if students successfully find and explain such errors. Furthermore, researchers found that students often misunderstood the symbology and labelling used in the diagrams. Therefore, for such a teaching strategy to succeed in helping students, three points must be ensured: 1. that students clearly understand the symbology and labelling in diagrams, 2. they have a good grasp of the subject, and 3. they must study the diagrams carefully, and in detail. It has been noted that when learning with visual aids like diagrams, many students tend to skim over the material without examining it in detail. Although not labelling the error in flawed diagrams may encourage students to put in more cognitive effort in studying the diagram and the concept, this does come with the danger of imparting wrong information. A student in a hurry may simply memorize the wrong facts without bothering to check the instructions accompanying the material.

In conclusion, deliberately introduced errors in visual aids can foster an error-tolerant classroom culture by showing that learning from errors is not only possible, but also desirable.

“If you think education is expensive, try the cost of ignorance.” – Derek Bok, Former President, Harvard University

Under a similar motivation, a series of pedagogy workshops for science teachers of Maharashtra state government schools and District Institutes of Education and Training was conducted in the winter of 2016. About three hundred and fifty science teachers teaching 9th and 10th standard students participated. Under the aegis of the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shikshan Abhiyaan (RMSA), Government of Maharashtra, it was organized by the Centre for Excellence in Science and Mathematics Education (COESME) at IISER Pune. COESME has been set up with the help of a grant from MHRD under “Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya National Mission for Teachers and Teaching (PMMMNMTT).

The pedagogy workshop was research based, consisting of tools that recognise, refine and reward research activity in a classroom setting. This does not imply novel research. These tools teach science and mathematics by enabling students to arrive at scientific concepts on their own, and cultivate problem solving skills. Imagination observation, logic, critical thinking, experimentation, interpretation and analysis are critical components. This approach has many names: Research Based Pedagogical Tools (RBPT), Research-Based learning (RBL), Problem-Based learning (PBL), project learning, “science in the real world” etc. In an inquiry-oriented classroom, the teacher is a co-explorer - one who cultivates curiosity and challenges students to think, explore and ask questions. Students are encouraged to "think out loud" as they share, debate, and collaboratively build understanding. However, it takes time to practice, and a shift in teaching strategies, to create a classroom where inquiry can flourish.

The reality of the situation was very promising, as the teachers were upbeat despite belonging to schools that lacked facilities on many fronts. Many schools didn’t even have proper classrooms; however, teachers did conduct basic science experiments. The training began with a session on ‘Observing and Describing’, conducted by COESME experts Apurva Barve and Madura Joglekar. They used a chocolate to delineate observations for the process of identification. This activity helped the teachers communicate what they observe without being biased or being influenced by a pre-conceived notion. For example, many teachers said that the toffee was coffee flavored, instead of saying that there was some flavor in there. The take home message was that knowledge is achieved through systematic observation that triggers inquiry.

We got a lot to learn from the other trainers, for example, they taught us how to make a gradient chart without using any instrument: use of a spot tile of a dye with measured diluent. Use of everyday objects for learning the scientific principles of chemistry: surface tension by using soap solutions. The language of communication was simplified: “gene” became “januk”. Teachers were able to correlate the basics that they had learnt as a part of their bachelor in education degree. Neeraja Dashputre (Assistant Professor, Chemical Education, IISER Pune) used an example of the various additives on plant growth while Jaiprakash Dashputre talked on electromagnetism and encouraged the teachers to draw the diagram of a magnetic field using a ruler and a pair of magnets. This provided an insight into the diagrammatic representation of concepts that are based on experiments. Vivek Ponkshe, educator from Jnana Prabodhini emphasized on the need to facilitate the thought process of students and support active reasoning – “Allow them to ask questions than ask them to arrive at a one correct answer; encourage all their responses to be valid, probe for clarification and evidence.” Vivek suggested a "rough-draft" sort of thinking, revised whenever a new piece of information is added as being vital to the process of science.

Children need time to try ideas, make mistakes, ponder on them and discuss. They need to be given space to explore their local phenomena maybe within the framework of the curricula. The workshops for teachers emphasized how using research as a pedagogical tool deepens content understanding.

The goal of RBPT is to use the practices of research as a teaching technique. I was interested to know as to what student activities were considered research by college teachers. Can the activities by students be broken up into research components and rated? Moreover, is it possible to do research without adequate reagents and high-end instruments? Teachers were presented with fictional scenarios of students taking up voluntary activities and asked if they regarded them as research. The recorded responses were anonymous and binary.

Following were the scenarios:

Three scenarios involved sample composition analysis (blood, beverage and water samples). Interestingly, a higher majority of educators (90%) recognized the analysis of water samples to be a research activity compared to that of sugary drinks (84%) or blood groups (51%). Is the impression of doing research an outcome of the model being studied? Noteworthy, only the study of beverages was associated with a poster presentation; suggesting another question – is communication of one’s scientific study an essential component of research activity? Interestingly, the analysis of vermiculture with a potential entrepreneurial and environmental benefit was ranked lower to that of water and beverage samples. Does this mean that “applied” work is less “research” than “academic” work?

The next activity that I assessed was that of reading. While writing a review and giving a talk on research papers was ranked high (75% and 61% respectively), reading about a topic before class was not counted as research by 55% of the participants. In contrast, further reading on a topic after it was taught in the class was considered as research by 75% of the participants. It is curious that voluntary enquiry to subject matter is not perceived as research until primed by a teacher. Yet, state of the art reading associated with an oral/written presentation is perceived as research. Also, the medium of the post class enquiry mattered - reading syllabus-related topics were ranked high compared to attending a seminar or watching a video lecture delivered by an expert.

One dimension of my thought experiment was to learn the responses of teachers to the activities constituting research. Among the population tested, over 50% of teachers thought that at least 7 of the 10 activities constituted research; and 19 teachers among the 117 tested considered all the 10 activities to be research. Whether this behavior has to do something with the training of teachers is unknown as the survey was anonymous.

Since the teachers had around a minute to answer each question, I consider the answers to be instinctive. I here suggest a rubric, based on which student activities can be ranked. I hope that this leads to a consensus on the idea of research. I suggest the following five parameters to be a part of the rubric:

• Involvement: Did the student do something actively (read, measure) or passively (listen, watch)?
• Manual Skill: Did the activity require skill in a laboratory technique?
• Reference Work: Did the student survey literature to locate a suitable reference material?
• Comprehension: Did the student analyze the result of the activity to gain a deeper understanding of the topic?
• Communication: Did the student generate new content in an oral, written or a graphic form?

When the “instinctive” responses were rated using this rubric, the activity that led to a holistic learning and effective communication was the one where the student set up and evaluated several conditions to arrive at the “best” condition (the vermiculture activity). Based on this rubric, reading a topic before a class rates higher than attending a talk or watching a video. I can conclude that, attending classroom lectures – even lectures describing research work or results – does not help the student develop any research ability. Moreover, activities that do not involve lab work: reading one or few papers, and giving an oral or written presentation score higher than a repetitive exercise of analyzing blood groups or water samples. When judged by this rubric, even in setups where lab space, reagents, and/or equipment is limited, a teacher can design and recognize library-based work as authentic research that provides a student the opportunity to develop transferrable skills and generate new, high quality content.

Vidya stresses on using a standard criterion as a basis of judgement of research activity. She plans to use this rubric to further develop the idea of research. She says it might help a teacher appreciate genuine discovery and design projects not heavily dependent on laboratory facilities.

Thirty-five years ago, Alex Johnstone, a professor and teacher of chemistry at the University of Glasgow, published a short paper on why students found chemistry hard to understand. He postulated that experts in chemistry viewed any subject topic at three levels, and “jumped freely from level to level in a series of mental gymnastics”, whereas, students did not engage in such “multi-level thought”. He used his knowledge of chemistry, and findings from information-processing studies to describe three ‘levels’ of chemical knowledge—the macroscopic or descriptive (embodying the physical characteristics of a substance such as density, color, etc.), the molecular or submicroscopic (explaining the chemical properties of the substance), and the symbolic or representational (formulae and equations). He devised a representational triangle known as the ‘chemical knowledge triplet’ which is highly influential in the field of chemistry education.

The utility of the Johnstone’s triangle framework is not restricted to chemistry alone. A recent paper by Wright et al. from the Rochester Institute of Technology adapts Johnstone’s triangle to address a question in biology education: why do students have trouble understanding the process of meiosis? Meiosis is a cell division process in which the daughter cells formed after division have one copy of the chromosomes carried by the parent cell. The process is essential for all eukaryotic organisms that undergo sexual reproduction and is central to the formation of gametes. The process of meiosis is undoubtedly complex; however, a thorough understanding and comprehension of meiosis is essential for the students of biology.

Unfortunately, despite repeated lessons on meiosis during the course of undergraduate study, Wright’s team discovered that many students, even third-year biology majors, had a poor comprehension of the subject. Drawing from a large dataset of assessment responses, interviews, and classroom experiences, Wright’s group postulated that students face trouble in connecting knowledge of DNA between three levels—chromosomal structure of DNA (sizes and shapes of chromosomes), molecular structure of DNA (relating to the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA), and at the informational level (an abstract understanding that DNA sequences contain information in the form of genes). The study also found that the standard text books used in the classrooms also failed to connect the three levels in explaining these concepts.

The team has shown in a previous publication that although students possess the knowledge of chromosomal and molecular levels of DNA structure, they focus mainly on the former to explain the beginning and the end of meiosis. This inattention to the events occurring at the molecular structure of DNA (such as the process of complementary pairing and crossing over) leads to a lacuna in their understanding of chromosome behavior and the outcomes of meiosis on an informational level; for example, many lack the ability to articulate the phenomenon of allele segregation in the context of meiosis.

Wright and her team term the framework of these three levels ‘the DNA triangle’, and show that it is a generalizable model useful for teaching various concepts in meiosis, and for other processes involving DNA. In the course of gathering data to illustrate the usefulness of the triangle, the group identified three themes in meiosis that seemed to generate a lot of confusion among students—homology, homologous pairing, and ploidy. When questioned, experts and students had vastly different comprehensions of these three concepts.

Students thought of chromosome homology in purely physical terms—homologous chromosomes had “the same size and shape”. While experts defined homologous chromosomes on an informational level as well, carrying the same genes in the same order, but alleles differing from each other by as little as a single base. Homologous pairing and crossing over were defined by experts at both informational and molecular levels—that pairing occurs due to high sequence similarity between homologous chromosomes, and that crossing over occurs between complementary DNA strands to swap information through a physical connection. However, students believed that crossing over involved the exchange of chunks of sister chromatids exchanging places. Experts defined ploidy at informational and molecular levels as the presence of two sets of information for each ‘type’ of chromosome, one maternal and the other paternal, in a typical diploid cell. Students, though, defined ploidy simply on the basis of chromosome set—replicated two-DNA chromosomes were considered diploid, while unreplicated one-DNA chromosomes were haploid.

“Meiosis, was a confusing topic for my students when I was teaching it a few years ago, and I suspect it remains so. Some of the confusion comes from poor retention by students; sadly, most students do not internalize the learning and focus only on clearing the semester-end exams. But some of it is definitely due to poor understanding of the structure of a chromosome,” says Vidya Jonnalagadda, an undergraduate teacher from Hyderabad, India. Jonnalagadda, who was much enthused by the work, adds, “I cannot agree more that is it really important to explain meiosis in terms of all three aspects (chromosomal, informational, and molecular), and to clarify meiotic processes in this framework. I believe that designing a comprehensive "triangle" plan for any topic in biology will definitely help students and teachers.”

Based on their study, the authors suggest that effort needs to be made to introduce molecular-level details in explaining meiosis to undergraduate students. They put forward the idea to have interactive sessions where students become chromosomes by using long paper strips printed with DNA sequences as visual and physical aids. By comparing base sequences on their strips to find their homologous pair, physically aligning the strips and crossing over complementary bases on sister chromatids, students gain a better understanding of these concepts of homology.